Indian Economy and Impact of Economic Reforms in India on Working Women

It is proposed to study the impact of Economic Reforms on women working in un-organized sector of the selected districts in the state of Maharashtra. We have already discussed in the previous Post , the objectives, scope and methodology of economic reforms in India.Therefore, in the light of the objectives and hypotheses, we shall discuss in detail, the findings of this study.

The district wise coverage of the sample districts, blocks, villages, as well as the number of sample entrepreneurs and women workers. We have selected for this study i] Beed ii] Ratnagiri districts as underdeveloped districts, of which Beed district belongs to the Marathwada

Region, while Ratnagiri district belongs to the Kokan Region of Maharashtra State. Both of these districts have a low Human Development Index. On the other we have selected i] Nagpur and ii] Kolhapur, as developed districts, for comparison. They have a higher Human Development Index. Similarly, as a second stage, 2 blocks each from of the under-developed districts, i.e.4 blocks, and 2 blocks each from
the developed districts, i.e. 4 blocks have been selected for the study i.e. total 8 blocks. At the third stage, we have selected 20 villages from each block, or 40 villages from under-developed blocks and another
40 villages from developed blocks. In this way the total number of villages covered is 80. Finally, from
4 under-developed blocks, 256 entrepreneurs and 144 women workers are selected, similarly from 4 developed blocks, 244 entrepreneurs and 156 workers are selected for study.

In this way, in each block, we have covered 200 sample entrepreneurs and workers, making a total of 800. Among these 800 sample, 500 are entrepreneurs while 300 belong to the category of women laborers.

Population, Households, Average size of Family:

The total population of the 40 sample villages in under- developed block according to the census of 2001 was 95888, with the total number of households at 19229, indicating the average size of the family of 4.99(or 5) persons. On the other hand, the total population of 40 sample villages in developed blocks was found to be 179452 persons, with the total number of households at 37442, indicating an average size of the family at 4.8 persons.

The proportion of female population in under-developed blocks to total population was 49.63%, while it was 47.49% in developed blocks. The percentage of scheduled caste population to total population in the under-developed blocks was 12.38% while it was 16.99% in developed blocks. Similarly, the proportion of scheduled tribes population to total population in under-developed blocks was 0.56%, and, it was, 0.85% in
developed blocks.

Main and Marginal workers:

1. The total working population, in the under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri together was observed to be 43084 persons, forming about 44.93 % of the population. On the other hand, the total working population of the developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur together was 74190 persons or 41.34% of total
population of these two blocks. The proportion of working population in under-developed blocks appears to be higher than the proportion of working population in developed blocks. Among total workers, the percentage of male and female workers in under-developed blocks was found to be 51.48% and
38.28% respectively, while for developed blocks, these percentages were 56.17% and 24.95% respectively. Hence, the proportion of female workers in developed blocks is much lower than the proportion of female workers in under developed blocks.

2. Main workers: The total number of main workers in 40 sample villages of under-developed blocks, was found to be 33168, of which, 20728 or (42.91%) were males, while 12440 (or 26.14%) were females. In 40 sample villages in under-developed blocks 52.04% (or male 49033 workers), but the percentage of female
main workers was only 16.65% (or 14193 workers).

3. Marginal workers: There were 9916 marginal workers in under-developed blocks, and 10964, in developed blocks. Out of these, 4138 (or 8.57%) were male marginal workers in under-developed blocks, while the number of female marginal workers was 5778 (or 12.14%) In developed blocks, however, the number of male marginal workers was only 1518 (or 2.46%), while the number of female marginal workers was higher at 4533 (or 8.13%).

Proportion of Cultivators to workers: There were a total number of 36705 cultivators residing in
80 sample villages or 8 blocks under study, forming about 31.1% of the total working population. Of this total 19011 cultivators (44.13% of total workers), belonged to the under- developed blocks, while the remaining 17694 cultivators (or 23.85%), belonged to the developed blocks. Among the 19011 cultivators in under-developed blocks female cultivators formed higher proportion at 51.64% (or 9407 cultivators), while the male cultivators were 38.62% (or 9604 cultivators), as proportion of total workers. Among the 17694 cultivators in the developed blocks, the percentage of female cultivators was 29.6%, while that of male cultivators was lower at 21.54% It may be concluded from above data, that the proportion of female cultivators to total workers, was higher than the proportion of male cultivators, both in under-developed as well as developed works under study.

Proportion of Agriculture Labour to total workers:

After cultivators, the second largest category among workers was the group of agriculture labour. It is interesting to note that, both in under-developed as well as in developed blocks, the proportion of female agricultural workers was very high i.e. 37.57% and 42.4% respectively. On the other hand the proportion of male agricultural workers, was relatively very low in both under-developed and developed blocks, i.e. 23.92% and 16.59% respectively.

Proportion of workers in Household Industry to total workers: This indicator explains the transformation of rural workers from agriculture to non-farm sector. In under-developed blocks, only 1.81% of workers were engaged in household industry as against the 4.17% workers engaged in household industry in
developed blocks. Among developed blocks Kolhapur block had highest proportion of 6.10% workers engaged in household industry. Let us now compare the proportion of female workers engaged in household
industry in under-developed and developed blocks of this study. It may be observed that only 1.77% of female workers are engaged in household industries in under-developed blocks, while the proportion of female workers engaged in household industries in developed blocks, is higher at 7.02%. this explains the fact that female workers in developed blocks are receiving higher benefits of household industry.

Proportion of other workers to total workers: The percentage of other kind of workers was relatively very low in underdeveloped blocks, i.e. 24.37% as against a high proportion of other workers in developed blocks, which was 47.45% to total workers. It was also observed that only 9.02% of
female workers were engaged as other workers, in underdeveloped blocks as against 20.98% female workers in developed blocks. From the above data it may be concluded that, among
female workers, in developed blocks could get higher benefit of employment, than the female workers in underdeveloped blocks.

Non-workers: The proportion of population, which is not part of the labour force, is known as non-workers or dependent population, which mostly include children below the age of 15 & persons above the
age of 60. It also includes voluntarily unemployed. the number as well as, proportion of non-workers to total
population. There were a total number of 52804 persons (55.07%) as non-workers in under-developed blocks, while there were total number of 105262 persons (or 58.66%) as non-workers in developed blocks. In under-developed blocks 61.72% females were non-workers, while in developed blocks 75.05% were in the non-workers category.

SECTION – A

This section deals with the Impact of transformation of new economic policies in developed and under-developed districts on the level of employment, income and consumption of the rural workers

 Level of Education of the Sample Workers: The level of education plays a crucial role in employability,
efficiency and level of income of a person. Under this background we have attempted to ascertain the level of
education of our sample entrepreneurs/workers of this study. The results are presented in table no. 4.3. For comparison, we have estimated the average values of two under-developed blocks, Beed & Ratnagiri, and the average values of the two developed blocks, that is Nagpur & Kolhapur.
               
In under-developed blocks, Beed &Ratnagiri, there are 76 & 68 sample entrepreneurs/workers, making a total of 144. Similarly in developed blocks of Nagpur (80) and Kolhapur (76), there are a total no. of. 156 sample female workers

i) In under developed blocks the percentage of illiteracy was 45.14%, among the two blocks Beed had a very high percentage of illiteracy at 59.21%. On the other hand, the percentage of illiteracy was relatively low at 38% in developed blocks.

ii) The proportion of persons reaching upto primary level was 36.12% in under-developed blocks, while it was little lower at 31.34% in developed blocks.

iii) The percentage of sample persons achieving middle school level education in under –developed blocks was 13.19% and it was little higher at 17.67% in developed blocks

iv) The proportion of sample persons passing SSC/HSC level was very low in under-developed blocks (5.55%), as against 11.33% in developed blocks.

v) As regards the percentage of persons achieving graduation level of education, it was observed that there was not a single person achieving this level in under-developed block, but, there were 5 persons or 6.25% achieving graduation level in Nagpur block, but not a single person in Kolhapur block.

vi) Not a single person in this sample, both in under-developed and developed blocks had any technical education.

In under-developed block of Beed, there were a total no. of. 76 workers, all of them (100%) reported to be un-skilled workers. In other words, there was not a single skilled worker in Beed block. However, in under-developed block of Ratnagiri, the number of skilled workers was only 2 (or 3% of total), while the remaining
68 workers (or 97%) were classified as unskilled workers. It is interesting to note that, in both the developed block of Nagpur & Kolhapur, not a single worker was reported as skilled worker; in other words, all the sample workers (156) in these two blocks were 100% unskilled.

Caste-wise Classification of Informants:

Out of a total number of 144 workers in underdeveloped block of Beed & Ratnagiri together, the percentage of SC / ST workers was 30.55% (or 44 workers); while the proportion of other backward castes (OBC), was 31.95% (or 46 workers); & those in the open or ‘other’ category, was 37.50% (or 54 workers). On the other hand, in the developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, there were a total no. of 156 workers of which 33.97% were SC / ST (or 97 workers), 44.87% (or 116 workers) were OBCs, & 21.16% (or 87) were other category workers. We may conclude from these data that the distribution of sample workers, in developed & underdeveloped blocks was mostly evenly spread.

 Land holding Pattern of the Sample Workers:

Out of the total number of 144 workers in the underdeveloped blocks of Beed & Ratnagiri, 100 workers or 69.44%, belonged to the category of land less workers. Another 41 (28.47%) sample
workers had landholding up to 2 hectares; they belonged to the category of marginal small farmers group. 9 workers (or 2.09%), had land between 2 hect - 4 hect. In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, there were a total number of 156 workers, of these 135 or (86.23%) workers were landless labour, 20 workers, (12.83%) were marginal & small farmers (below 2 hectares) and only one worker (0.64%) had
land between 2 hectares and 4 hectares. Hence, we may conclude that, of the total 300 workers
belonging to both, underdeveloped and developed blocks together, 78.34% workers were landless labour; 29.53% were marginal & small farmers and, 1.33% were holding land between 2 hect and 4 hect.

Economic Category-wise Coverage of workers:

In developed block of Nagpur & Kolhapur together, there were a total number of 156 workers; of these 75 families (58.34%) belonged to the category of BPL families. Nagpur block had 60% BPL families as against 35.58% in Kolhapur block. As regards above poverty line (APL) workers, it was found that,
out of 144 families in underdeveloped blocks, 44 (or 30.55%) families belonged to APL category, while in developed blocks, out of 156 families 51.92% (or 81 families) belonged to APL category. Considering all the 300 workers together, (developed +underdeveloped blocks) , 125 families (41.66%) were APL
families while 175 families (or 58.34%) were BPL families.

Nature of Housing Facilities of the Sample Workers: In this section we shall discuss the nature of housing facilities made available to them, before and after the transformation of the district economy, that is between 1995 and 2005. The changes that have taken place during the decade will be compared between underdeveloped and developed blocks of this study. Table no. 4.8 show this information.


Before the implementation of the various Govt. programmes, outf a total number of 144 workers, as many as 85 families (59.03%), were residing in kachha houses in under-developed blocks of Beed & Ratnagiri. But, after the implementation of housing programmes, the number of families has come down to
50 or to 34.72%. this may be considered as an important change in the standard of living of these families.
However, in developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, there these 66 families were a total number of 156 families of (42.31%) were residing in kachha houses during the earlier period. After decade and due to implementation of various housing programmes, only 36 families (23.07%) are now residing
in kachha houses. The Impact is higher in underdeveloped blocks than in developed blocks.

Semi-Pakka Houses: There were 35 families (24.31%) in underdeveloped blocks who were residing in semi-pakka houses, after the programmes, proportion has increased to 40.28%. In developed blocks, the
percentage of families living in semi-kachha houses before the decade was 34.62%, which increased to 45.52% at the end of decade.

Pakka Houses: In underdeveloped blocks of Beed & Ratnagiri together, the families residing in pakka houses substantially increased from 16.66% to 25% during the decade. This could be considered as a positive & important change in the standard of living of the sample workers in underdeveloped blocks, of this study. In developed block of Nagpur & Kolhapur together, the percentage of families residing in pakka houses, increased from 23.07% to 31.41% over the decade.

Hence, we may conclude from this analysis that, the % of families residing in kachha houses, both in underdeveloped as well as developed blocks, has declined sharply, & at the same time, the percentage of families residing in pakka houses, in both type of blocks, has increased considerably by indicating a
positive change in their standard of living during the decade 1995-2005.

Ownership of Housing Facility

Own Houses: In underdeveloped blocks of Beed & Ratnagiri, out of total number of 144 sample families, 140 families (or 97.23%) owned their own houses, before the decade, but at the end of the
decade their percentage slightly decreased to 96.54%. In developed blocks of Nagpur & Kolhapur there were a total number of 156 sample families; of which 140 families (89.75%) had their own houses in the earlier period. But, at the end of decade, their percentage slightly declined to 89.12%.

Rented Houses: The proportion of sample families with rented housing declined from 2.77% to 2.08% during the decade in underdeveloped blocks, while the percentage of families with rented housing in developed blocks also declined from 7.05% to 5.12 during the decade.

Govt. allocated Housing Facility: There was not a single family in under-developed blocks, who
were allocated Govt. housing facility at the beginning of the decade. However, at the end of the decade one family in Beed & one family in Ratnagiri was allotted IAY Houses. Hence, the percentage
of families obtaining housing under Govt. programme in under-developed blocks was very meagre (1.38%).
However, in developed blocks of Nagpur & Kolhapur, 5 families (3.20%) could get Govt. housing before the decade while at the end of decade, their percentage increased to 5.76% (or 9
families). From the above analysis, we may conclude that most of the sample families in both under-developed & developed blocks (93%) have own houses. Rented housing and Govt. allocated housing is very limited

Improvement in standard of living of the sample Families In this section we shall discuss the changes in the
standard of living of the sample families in under-developed blocks of Beed & Ratnagiri and sample families in developed blocks of Nagpur & Kolhapur. Table No. 4.10 shows this
information.

1. In 1994-95, there was not a single family which could own a moped/scooter/motor cycles in under-developed blocks of Beed & Ratnagiri; but in 2005-06, 0.69% of the sample families, owned, either moped or scooter or motorcycle. In developed blocks of Nagpur & Kolhapur however, 0.33% of the sample families owned mopeds / scooter / motor cycles. But in 2005- 06, their percentage improved to 2% of families. This could be considered as an improvement in the standard of living of the sample families during the decade.

2. Another important change during the decade relates to the ownership of bi-cycles by the sample families. The percentage of the families owning bi-cycles, increased from 7.64% in 1994-95 to 15.97% in 2005-06, in under-developed blocks, while it increased from 15.67% to 27.67% for sample families in developed blocks, during the same period.

3. Another major change in the use of durable goods by the sample families related to the possession of radio-sets. In 1994-05, 11.80% of families in under-developed blocks possessed radio sets; while in 2005-06, the percentage increased to 19.44%. Similarly, in developed blocks also the proportion of families possessing radio-sets increased from 11.67% to 23.33% during the same period.

4. As regards use of television sets, it was found that, not a single family in Beed block possessed TV set; but in Ratnagiri district, however, 27.94% of the families possessed TV sets. Considering The two under-developed blocks together, 13.19% of the families used TV sets; this proportion increased to 28.47% in 2005-06. In developed blocks of Nagpur & Kolhapur, the percentage of families using TV sets increased from 8.33% to 42.95% during the same period.

5. There was no use of Gas-Stove in Beed district in 1994-95; but in Ratnagiri, Gas-Stoves were used by 8.82% of families. But, in 2005-06, 1.31% of families in Beed block also used gas-stoves. However, in 1994-95 & 2005-06, the percentage of families using gas-stoves increased from 4.17% to 7.64% in under- developed blocks, while in developed blocks, it increased from 2.56% to 10.26% during the decade.

6. Freeze, not a single family, used it both in under-developed as well as in developed blocks in 1994-95. But, in 2005-06, only in Ratnagiri block 1.47% of the families used refrigerators, which is an indicator of prosperity & a high standard living in a backward block. In developed blocks of Nagpur & Kolhapur, 1% of the sample families used refrigerators in 2005-06.

7. Electric fans, are considered as a commodity of comfort. The proportion of sample families possessing electric fans in under- developed blocks, increased from 19.44% in 1994-95 to 32.64% in 2005-06; while in developed blocks, it increased from 12.18% to 41.03%, during the same period.

8. Use of telephones has become very popular in all parts of the State in recent years. It has become a very necessary mode of communications. However, in 1994-95, no family in both under- developed and developed blocks had any telephone connection. But, in 2005-06, 1.39% of families in under-developed and
2.56% of the families in developed blocks, had telephone connections.

9. Not a single family in both, under-developed as well as developed blocks, possessed sewing machines. However, some other commodities were possessed by the families in both type of blocks.

We may conclude from the above discussion, that, the standard living of the sample families, in both, under-developed as well as in developed blocks, has considerably improved between 1994-95 and 2005-06.

Employment Related Issues: - In this section we are discussing a very important issue relating to the employment status of the sample workers in developed and under-developed blocks of this study for the
years, 1994-95 and 2005-06. The details of the responses given by the sample workers are tabulated in

i. Adequacy of employment at present place: Asked about the adequacy of employment for the workers
in the family at the place of their residence or village, 73% of the respondents in under-developed blocks, stated that, they could get employment in sufficient days in the year, at the place of their residence or village. However, in 994-95, 54% of the families in Beed Block and 88% families in Ratnagiri Block
could obtain sufficient days of employment in a year. But, in 2005-06, 88% of the families could get sufficient employment a year, or there was a fall of 6% percentage points during the year. In Beed Block, however, the position remained constant at  54%. The overall situation suggests that, there is slight fall of 3% percentage points in employment in under-developed blocks, i.e. from 73% to 70% (families). In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, the proportion of families obtaining adequate employment in a year, at the place
of their residence has slightly improved from 83% to 85% between 1994-95 and 2005-06. But, at the block level, in Nagpur, the percentage of families having sufficient employment in a year has increased from 75% to 82%; while in Kolhapur Block, it has declined form 91% to 87%, during the same period.

ii. Migration of Labour: Whenever, the working families in rural areas do not get sufficient days of employment in a year, they are forced to migrate to those places / areas, where employment with higher wages is available. This kind of a situation prevails, especially, in draught-prone areas of the State. We have already discussed
in detail, the migration of rural labour in Beed District, to other Districts / States, as cane harvesting labour. They migrate for 6 to 8 months, along with their luggage & family members. Their number ranges between 2 lakhs and 4 lakhs in a year. In this background, we shall discuss the problem of migration of the
sample labour families. Table No. 4.11, shows information relating to employment related issues of the sample women workers. The percentage of women workers migrating to other places in was 1994-95, in under-developed blocks was 9%; while it at zero in developed blocks. But, among lower under-developed blocks, this proportion was very high at 16% in Beed Block, while it was very low at 1% in Ratnagiri Block. In 2005-06, the proportion of women workers migrating toother places, slightly declined from 9% to 8%; but in Beed Block, it has remained constant at 16%; in Ratnagiri Block, there was no migration during this period. In 2005-06, there was no migration of women workers to other places. Migration of women workers was found to be of various levels. For example, in under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri, migration of labour was 6% within the district, in 1994-95; but it declined to 5% in 2005-06. There was no migration of workers from developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, at all. Workers migrating outside the district was nil, in both developed and under-developed blocks. But, in 2005-06, 1% of the women workers had to migrate to other districts. There was migration of women workers, even outside the state during the years 1994-95 and 2005-06; in under- developed blocks. This migration was 3% in 1994-95, and, 2% in 2005-06. It may be observed from the table that, most of the migration of workers has taken place in Beed Block.

iii. Registration of Names in the Employment Register: Recently, the Govt. of India, has initiated, in 2005, the
National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme, in 200 Districts of the Country. The Govt. of Maharashtra, had started such a scheme long back in 1978-79, guaranteeing employment to rural unemployed. We have made an attempt in this study to know the extent to which, the sample rural women workers, have taken advantage of this Employment Guarantee Scheme, in 2005-06. Asked as to how many of them had registered their names in the Employment Register, only 13% of the women workers in
under-developed blocks and 4% of them in developed blocks had registered their names in Employment Registers. Among the backward blocks, Beed had maximum registration of 14% of sample women workers, in 2005-06.

iv. Receiving Ration under Public Distribution System (PDS): It was observed in this study that 26% of the sample women workers blocks in under-developed could take blocks of and the 17% in developed advantage Public Distribution System, during the year 2005-06. It appears that majority of these women workers, are kept out of the benefits of the Public Distribution System in these blocks.

v. Employment and Family Needs: Generally, it is expected that available employment should ensure minimum needs of a family. In this context, our study has revealed that only 60% of the sample women workers stated
that, the income obtained from their employment was sufficient to meet their family needs, in under-developed blocks in 2005- 06. Among, the backward blocks, the percentage was 51% for Beed and 71% for Ratnagiri block. That means Ratnagiri Block is better placed than Beed Block.

Among developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhpur, together the proportion of families stating that the income from employment was sufficient to meet their family needs was 70%; which was better than the percentage in under-developed blocks (i.e.60%). Among the developed blocks, Kolhapur block was better placed at 84%, while Nagpur Block had a percentage of 57.

There is a link between employment-wage-family needs. Therefore, in developed blocks, the opportunities of employment are better along with relatively higher wage-rates, than what is available in under-developed blocks, during 2005-06.

vi. Full Time and Part Time Employment: dairy goat units, chilly grinding, tailoring, bangle shops, grocery
shops, broom making, beauty parlours, STD booths, tea-shops etc. Let us now examine as to what extent these activities have been able to create full time and part-time jobs in both under- developed as well as developed districts of this study.

1. Full Time Jobs / Employment: Out of the total number of 282 persons in under
developed districts of Beed and Ratnagiri together, 229 persons or (81.2%) could get full time employment in various economic activities mentioned above.


Part Time Jobs/Employment: part-time employment in various economic activities undertaken by the sample women entrepreneurs, in both under developed and developed districts of this study. For example, in under- developed districts of Beed and Ratnagiri a total number of 53 persons (or18.8%) could get part-time jobs; while in developed districts of Nagpur and Kolhapur 32 persons (or10.4%) could get part time employment during the reference period.

vii. Problems of obtaining Employment in the Village: It was observed that, 44% of the women workers in
under-developed blocks, and 29% in developed blocks had to face various difficulties in obtaining employment in their own villages. In Beed District, maximum of 50% women workers
faced this problem.

 Impact on Levels of Family Incomes: To assess the impact of the transformation, during the decade, is one of the major and important objectives of this study. Table No. 4.13 shows data relating to the annual family income of the sample women workers, in both, under-developed and developed blocks of this study. The incomes are measured at two points of time, that is, 1994-95 and 2005-06, at current prices.
      

The impact of transformation on the levels of family incomes of the rural women worker, is measured by combing the two under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri together, and, similarly by combining the two developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur together. The results are as follows: -

a. The median income of the sample families, in under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri Blocks, in 1995 (before was Rs. 15789/-), which increased to Rs. 23556/-, in 2005; indicating a rise of Rs. 7767/-, over the decade, or a rise of 49.2% over the period).

b. The median income of the sample women workers, in developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, together, was observed to be Rs. 15889/- in 1995, which increased to Rs. 26286/- in 2005, indicating a rise of Rs.10397/- over the decade, or a rise of 65.4% over the period.

c. It may be concluded that, during the decade of transformation women workers, both in under-developed as well as developed blocks have benefited in their wages or incomes. However, the women workers in developed blocks have obtained higher level of incomes (65.4%), than the women workers in under- developed blocks (49.2%).

 IMPACT ON LEVEL OF INCOMES (WOMEN WORKER)
In this section we are presenting the impact of transformation on the level of incomes of the rural women
workers in both under-developed (Beed and Ratnagiri) and developed districts (Nagapur and Kolhapur), of this study. This impact is measured in terms of Standard deviation and Coefficient of variation in incomes of the sample workers before transformation (1994-95) and after the transformation (2004- 05).

In under developed districts the value of standard deviation has increased from Rs. 12090 (before transformation) to Rs. 15160 after transformation, indication rising inequality from average income. But, the coefficient of variation has declined from 69.25% (before transformation) to 57.66% (after transformation) indication more stability and lower deviation from average.

ii. Similarly in developed districts also, the standard deviation of the average income of the women workers, before transformation was Rs. 8228 while it increased to Rs.13474 after transformation. But, the coefficient of variation which was 49% before transformations, has further declined to 46.7% indicating that the level of incomes are more state with less deviation in developed districts when compared to undeveloped
districts.

Change in Occupation: We have made an attempt to know whether the sample workers, in both under-developed as well as developed districts had to change their occupations, during the decade, for various reasons.

i. In Beed Block, out of 76 workers, 15 workers (or 19.7%) had to change their occupation, while in another under-developed block of Ratnagiri, out of 68 sample workers, only 6 workers (or 8.8%) had to change their occupations during the decade. Considering both Beed and Ratnagiri Blocks together 15% (or 21 workers) of the 144 workers, had to change their occupations.

ii. As regards change of occupations in developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, it was found that, in Nagpur District, out of a total number of 80 sample workers, 10 workers (or 12.5%) had to change their occupations; while in Kolhapur block only 10.5% of (8 workers) the total workers had to change
occupation. Considering, both Nagpur and Kolhapur blocks together, it was found that, 18 sample workers (11.5%), out of 156 workers had to change their occupations during the reference decade.

We may conclude from this data that, in backwards blocks the proportion of the change of occupations by workers, is higher than in developed blocks.

Impact of Transformation on Level of Incomes and Below

Poverty Line Families: the number of families crossing the poverty line of Rs. 24000/- per annum, over a period of one decade i.e. 1994-95 to 2005-06. The Impact is as fallows: -

i. In under-developed Beed Block, out of 76 sample workers families, 21 families (or 27.6%) could cross the poverty line during the decade. Similarly in another backward block of Ratnagiri, out of 68 sample families 35.3% (or 24 families) could cross the poverty line. Therefore, within these two blocks, Ratnagiri has performed relatively better than Beed Block.

ii. In developed block of Nagpur, out of a total number of 80 sample families, 29 families (or 36.3%) could cross the poverty line during the reference decade.

On the other hand, in Kolhapur Block, out of 76 sample families, 34 families (or 44.8%) could cross the poverty line.

Total Under-developed Blocks: the combined impact of transformation on the family incomes, crossing the poverty line. (i.e. Beed + Ratnagiri Blocks together)

i. In two under-developed blocks, there are a total number of 144 sample families; of these 45 families (or 31.3%) could cross the poverty line during the decade.

ii. On the other hand, in two developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, there are a total number of 156 sample families. Of these 40.4% (or 63 families) could cross the poverty line during the decade. (see figure 1)
From these data, we may conclude that among the sample blocks, developed blocks have performed better than under- developed blocks, regarding the proportion of sample families crossing the poverty line.

IMPACT OF TRANSFORMATION ON RURAL WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
IN UNDER-DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPED BLOCKS

In this B Section, we shall discuss the impact of transformation on the levels of employment, income and standard of living of the sample rural entrepreneurs of developed & under developed districts
in Maharashtra State. In this section we shall discuss the main characteristics of the sample households.

1. Caste-wise Classification of Sample Entrepreneurs: Caste-wise Classification of rural women entrepreneurs of this study. There were a total no. of 256 sample families in Beed and Ratnagiri Blocks (under- developed). Of these 50 families (19.53%) belonged to the SC / ST categories; while another 84 families belonged to the
category of OBC (Other Backward Castes) (or 32.81%). The remaining 122 families (47.66%) were open category families.

In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, the total no. of rural women entrepreneurs was 244. Of these, 47 families (19.26%) belonged to the category of SC / ST; while 123 families were OBCs (or 50.41%). The remaining 74 families (30.33%) belonged to the open category.

2. Economic Status of the Sample Entrepreneurs:  the economic status of the sample rural women entrepreneurs of under-developed and developed blocks of this study i.e. APL and BPL status.

In under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri, out of a total no. of 256 sample families, 127 families (or 49.61%) belonged to the APL (Above Poverty Line) category, while the remaining 129 families (50.39%) belong to the BPL (Below Poverty Line) category.

In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur the total no. of sample families was 244. Of these 194 families (79.51%) were APL families, while the remaining 50 families (20.49%) belonged
to the category of BPL families.

3. Occupation-wise Classification of Sample Entrepreneurs: s the Occupational Classification of
the sample rural women entrepreneurs or their families in both under-developed and developed blocks of this study. There were a total no. of 256 rural women entrepreneurs in the under- developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri together. Of these 66 families (or 25.78%) had agriculture as their occupation; while only 4 (or 1.56%) had non-agricultural occupation. Another 21 families (or 8.2%) were working as rural artisans. The remaining 165 (or 64.46%) women were working in different type of non- farm activities.
            
In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, the total no. of women entrepreneurs was 244. Of these 37 families (15.16%) had agriculture as their occupation, while only 1 family (0.41 %) had non-agriculture as their occupation. 11 Sample families were engaged in activities like rural artisans (4.51%). The remaining 195 families were engaged in other non-farm activities (or 79.92%).

4. Level of Education:  the level of education of the sample rural women entrepreneurs, in both under-developed and developed blocks of this study. It is a well known fact that, productivity and efficiency of any productive unit depends upon the level of education.
              
In under-developed blocks, the percentage of illiterate women entrepreneurs is higher at 26.17%, when compared to the percentage of illiteracy in developed blocks, which was 18.8%. The proportion of sample women entrepreneurs attaining primary level education was 24.22% in under- developed blocks, while it was little lower at 15.98% in developed blocks. The percentage of entrepreneurs attaining middle school level education was almost same (24.2%) in both under-developed and developed blocks. As regards, attaining education upto SSC / HSC, it was found that 23% of entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks and
30.8% in developed blocks had attained that level. Only 2.34% of sample entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks and 9.8% in

developed blocks had received education upto degree level. Surprisingly, not a single women entrepreneur both in under- developed education. Relatively speaking the proportion of sample and developed blocks could attain technical entrepreneurs in developed blocks had better educational background than the entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks.

5. Structure of Land Holding of the Sample Entrepreneurs:  the structure of the size of land
holding of the sample women entrepreneurs in developed and under-developed blocks of this study.
           
Of the total no. of 256 sample entrepreneurs of the under- developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri, 166 (or 64.84%) were landless; while the proportion of landless families in developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur was quite higher at 75.41% (out of 244 families).

The percentage of families owning upto 2 hectares of land in under-developed blocks was 29.3% (or 75 families), while it was lower at 15.98% (or 39 families)in developed blocks. Similarly, the percentage of sample families holding land between 2 hectares and 4 hectares, was 4.3% in under-developed and
4.51% in developed blocks. Finally, the percentage of families holding more than 4 hectares of land in under-developed blocks was only 1.56% and 4.10% in developed blocks. Hence, it may be concluded that a high proportion of landlessness was observed among the rural women entrepreneurs, in both developed and under-developed blocks.

6. Status of Housing Facilities: Improvement in housing facilities indicates a better standard of life. Therefore, in this section an attempt is made to measure the relative position of the sample women entrepreneurs, about their housing facilities in 1994-95 and 2005-06. These changes are given in table No. 4.22. Out of a total number of 256 sample families in under developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri, 87 families (33.98%) were residing in Kaccha houses; but in 2005-06, this percentage has declined to 17.19% (or 44 families). In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, the total no. of sample families was 244. Out of these 66 families (27.05%) were residing in kaccha houses in 1994-95; this percentage declined to 7.79% (or 19
families) in 2005-06.

On the other hand, the proportion of families living in Sami-pacca houses in under-developed blocks declined from 33.59% in 1994-95 to 31.25% in 2005-06. In developed blocks also, the proportion of families residing in Semi-pacca houses, declined form 32.79% to 27.46% during the same period.
The proportion of families residing in Pacca houses in under-developed blocks, considerably improved from 32.43% (or 83 families) in 1994-95 to 51.56% (or 132 families) in 2005-06.

In developed blocks also the proportion of families living in Pacca houses increased from 40.16% (or 98 families) in 1994-95 to 64.75% (or 158 families) in 2005-06. This data clearly indicate a significant improvement in the availability of better housing facilities for the sample families in both developed and under-developed blocks of this study. Relatively speaking, the proportion of families getting better housing facilities is higher in developed blocks when compared to the proportion in under-developed blocks.

7. Possession of Durable Household Goods: the possession of durable household goods by the sample rural women entrepreneurs in both developed as well as under-developed blocks of this study. These durable goods include, Scooters / Motor Cycles; Bicycles, Fans, T. V. Sets, Radio Sets, Refrigerators, Gas Stove, Telephones, etc. All these goods represent a high standard of living and goods of comforts. The changes in the use of these goods are shown during the period of about one decade, i.e. 1994-95 and 2005-06.

i. Use of Bicycles: Use of bicycles is the popular mode of transport and travel in rural India. It is also the cheapest mode. In 1994-95, 15% of the sample families in under-developed blocks and 40% families in developed blocks, used bicycles as an important mode of transport and travel. But, in 2005-06, this percentage increased to 27% in the under-developed and to 54% in developed blocks.

ii. Use of Mopeds / Scooter / Motor Cycles by the sample families indicates their improvement in the standard of living. In 1994- 95, only 6% of the families in under-developed blocks, used scooters / motor cycles as mode of travel; but, in 2005-06, the percentage of families using motor cycles in under-developed blocks increased to 15% and to 24% in developed blocks.

iii. Radio Sets: Use of radio sets is a major source of entertainment in rural areas. It is also an important source of obtaining information and news. In 1994-95, 14% of the families in under-developed blocks and 26% families in developed blocks used radio sects as a source of entertainment. This percentage increased to 27% in the former blocks and to 38% in the latter blocks.

iv. Television Sets: use of Television sets in recent years has become very popular not only in urban areas but also in rural area of the state. The use of T.V. is an indicator of a high standard of living of a family. It is no doubt, very powerful medium of influencing peoples life; a major source of entertainment and knowledge. In 1994-95, 31% of the sample families in under-developed blocks and 46% of the families in developed blocks possessed television sets. In 2005-06, this percentage increased to 59% in under-developed blocks and 78% in developed blocks.

v.
Gas Stove: Use of gas stove for cooking purposes also indicates an improved standard of life in rural areas. In 1994-95, only 11% of the families in under-developed blocks and 21% of the sample families in developed blocks used gas stores as a source of cooking; this percentage increased to 33% in under-developed
blocks and to 61% in developed blocks.

vi. Refrigerator: Use of refrigerator is a sign of prosperity and a very high standard of life. Rich families in rural areas are also using refrigerators as a symbol of status. In 1994-95, only 4% of the sample families in under-developed blocks and 6% of the families in developed blocks used refrigerators. But, in 2005-06,  this percentage increased to 16% in both under-developed as well as developed blocks.

vii. Fans: Electric fans is yet another durable good used by common people both in rural and urban area. In fact, it has become a necessity of every family today. In 1994-95, 36% of the sample families in under-developed blocks and 50% of the families in developed blocks possessed electric fans. In 2005-06, this percentage increased to 66% in under-developed blocks and to 78% in developed blocks.

viii. Telephones: Use of telephones, today, is a major mode of quick communication all over the country. In rural area possession of a telephone is regarded as a status symbol. In 1994-95, only 4% of the sample families in under-developed blocks and 7% in developed blocks, possessed telephones. But in 2005-06, this
percentage increased to 23% in under-developed blocks and to 27% in developed blocks.

FROM THIS ANALYSIS WE CAN DRAW TWO MAJOR CONCLUSIONS:

a. During the decade, between 1994-95 and 2005-06, the standard of living of the sample entrepreneurs, both in under-developed as well as in developed blocks has, considerably improved.

b. The changes in the standard of life of the sample families in developed blocks are much higher when compared to be changes that have occurred in case of sample families in under- developed blocks.

8. Nature of Activities of the Sample Entrepreneurs: the nature of economic activities undertaken by the sample women rural entrepreneurs of this study. That is whether the activity is perennial or seasonal.

In developed blocks, however, of the total no. of 244 rural women entrepreneurs, 227 (or 93.03%) entrepreneurs were engaged in perennial type of economic activities, while the remaining 17 entrepreneurs (or 6.97%) were engaged in seasonal type of economic activities. Hence, it may be concluded that a major percentage of rural women entrepreneurs (more than 85%), were engaged in perennial type of economic activities, both in under-developed as well as developed blocks.

9. Location-wise Economic Activity:  the location of the premises of the economic activity initiated by the rural women entrepreneurs in both under-developed and developed block of this study. Out of the total no. of 256 sample entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri, 202 entrepreneurs had proper premises to initiate their activities (or 78-91%), while the remaining 54 entrepreneurs (21.09%) had no proper building

premises. On the other hand, in developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, out of the total no. of 244 women entrepreneurs 210 entrepreneurs (86.06%) had proper premises to start their economic activity; while the remaining 34 entrepreneurs (13.94%) had no proper premises.
  
i. In under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri, out of a total no. of 256 entrepreneurs, 53 entrepreneurs (20.7%) used electric energy as a source of power to run their activity. Another 6 entrepreneurs (2.34%) used other fuels to run their activity. But a majority of them, 197 entrepreneurs (76.96%), required no energy or power to run their economic activity.

ii. In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, out of the total no. of 244 women entrepreneurs, 56 entrepreneurs (22.95%) used electric energy to run their activities. Only 2 entrepreneurs (0.82%), used oil as a source of energy; 7 entrepreneurs used other fuels (2.87%). The remaining 179 entrepreneurs (73.36%) required no energy to run their economic activities.

11. Availability of Infrastructure Facilities: To improve the level of productivity and efficiency of an
economic unit, availability of adequate raw material, repairs and maintenance services, skilled workforce, marketing services and regular electric supply, etc. are important. In this context, the availability of such infrastructure facilities engaged by the sample women entrepreneurs in both under-developed and develop blocks of this study.

There were a total no. of 256 rural women entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri. Of these, 76.95% reported that they had adquite amount of raw material and other inputs required by them. Similarly, 93.36% of them stated that they had good marketing services. But, only 34% reported
that they could get repairs and maintenance facilities; and 45% of them stated that they could get adequate work force. But, the problem of regular electric supply appears to be serious as only 33.2% stated that the could get regular electric supply to the irunits.

ii. In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, the total no. of women entrepreneurs was 244. As regards availability of inputs raw material, 91.8% of them reported that they had adequate supply of raw materials. 96.3% of them stated that they had


good marketing services; 76% of them reported satisfactory maintenance & repairs services. But, only 59.4% of them stated that the availability of proper workforce was satisfactory. Only 10.7% reported that the supply of regular electric power was good. Hence, in both under-developed and developed blocks supply of skilled labour and regular electric power, were the main constraints on their level of output and productively.

12 Type of Training Provided:Training in the relevant vocation plays a crucial role in improving the efficiency of an economic unit. It also improves the competitiveness in a market economy. In this, context, we
have made an attempt to know the type of training that has been imparted to the sample rural women entrepreneurs of this study.

 the nature of training imparted to the women entrepreneurs in under-developed as well as developed
blocks of this study. There were 256 women entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks: of which only 31% received training relevant to their economic activity; while another 35% of them stated that they required no training at all. The remaining 34% of them did not receive any training relating to their economic activity.
Of those who received training (79 or 31%), 75% of them (59) obtained formal training; the remaining 20 (or 25%) could obtain only informal training.

ii. In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, the total no. of women entrepreneurs was 244. Of these 91 (or 37.3%) could receive training relating to their economic activity. 71 persons (or 29.1%) required no training and 82 persons or (33.6%) did not receive any training at all. Those who could receive training (91 persons), 68% of them obtained formal training while 32% of them received only informal training.

i. Coverage of Economic Activities of the Sample Women Entrepreneurs:- The Survey has covered various type of economic activities undertaken by the Sample Rural Women Entrepreneurs in selected, under-developed (2 blocks), and developed (2 blocks), of Beed & Ratnagiri; and, Nagpur & Kolhapur Districts respectively. The Economic Activities include: i. Primary Sector,

ii. Secondary Sector, and iii. Tertiary Sector, of the selected district economics. various economic activities undertaken by the Sample Entrepreneurs. the number and proportion of economic activities undertaken
by the Sample Rural Women Entrepreneurs in both under-developed and developed blocks of this study. The proportion of Primary Sector economic activities is both, developed and under-developed blocks is very low, i.e. 2.0% and 7.5% respectively. However, the number as well as proportion of Secondary Sector
Economic Activities is very high in both type of blocks i.e. 48.4% in under-developed and 49.6% in developed blocks. In Tertiary Sector also the proportion of economic activities is very high in both areas, i.e. 44.1% in under-developed blocks and 48.4% in developed blocks. Considering all the 4 Blocks together, it is observed that out of 500 Sample Entrepreneurs, 24 Activities (4.8%) belong to Primary Sector; 245 (or 49.0%) belong to Secondary Sector and 231 (or 46.2%) belong to the Tertiary Sector. Hence, we may conclude that, out of the 500 Entrepreneurs of this study 96.2% activities belong to non-farm sector, while only 4.8% belong to farm-sector activity.

Primary Sector: There are 3 major economic activities undertaken by the Rural Women Entrepreneurs under primary sector, which include, Dairy, Bullock Carts and Goat Rearing. The total no. of units under primary sector forming about 4.8% of the total economic activities.There are a total no. of 13 Dairy Units in the Sample, of which 9 are located in under-developed blocks (or 69%) and the remaining 4 (or 31%) are located in developed blocks. Beed Block appears to have major share (62%) in total no. of dairies.

Bullock Carts activity is undertaken only in one block of Beed, i.e. under-developed. There are 3 women entrepreneurs in Beed, which have undertaken this type of economic activity. Goat Rearing activity is also concentrated in Beed Block as out of 8 units, 7 units (88%) are located in Beed Block while only
one unit is located in Kolhapur District. Hence, we may conclude that among primary sector economic activities, Beed Block has a dominant position.

iii. Secondary Sector: The Secondary Sector has to play an important role in enhancing the regular incomes of the rural families. It also absorbs the surplus labour in various types of farm activities in the villages. During the transformation of the district economy, rural industrialization has to play a key role. It may be noted that, the secondary sector in rural areas, has to cater to the needs of the rural masses. The following type of economic activities, in both, under-developed and developed blocks of this study are shown in table 4.31. For example, these activities include, Chilli Grinding, Flour Mills, Pottery, Carpentry, Rope wearing, Broom making, Tailoring, Pieco falls, Milk Processing, Food Processing units, Power-looms, Printing Press etc.

i. There are a total number of 245 rural women entrepreneurs who have undertaken various economic activities, under the Secondary Sector. Of these 245, 124 entrepreneurs belong to the under-developed blocks of Beed (76 or 61%) and Ratnagiri (48 or 39%). Similarly, there are a total no. of 121 women entrepreneurs in developed blocks of Nagpur (62 or 52%) and, Kolhapur (59 or 48%).

ii. Out of a total no. of 124 Women entrepreneurs in under- developed blocks, Tailoring / Pico falls, appears to be the major economic activity as 28% (or 72 entrepreneurs) have taken to this activity; in developed blocks also, out of 121 entrepreneurs, 86 women (35%) have started tailoring firms.

iii. Chilli Grinding / Flour Mills is the second largest economic activity undertaken by the sample women entrepreneurs of the study. Out of a total no. of 43 units, 24 units (9.38%) are located in under-developed blocks and 19 (7.79%) are located in developed blocks.

iv. There are 12 food processing units; of which 7 are located in under-developed and 5 are located in developed blocks. Their % to total is 2.43% and 2.05% respectively.

v. There are 5 pottering units; of which only one in under- developed and 4 are in developed blocks.

vi. There are only 2 black smithy units and there are located only in Beed Block; and only one carpentry unit in Beed block.

vii. Out of a total no. of 3 Rope wearing units; 2 are located in under-developed Beed block and one unit is developed Kolhapur Block.

viii. Broom making is yet another economic activity. Out of 13 broom making units, 12 units are located in backward Ratnagiri Block and only one unit in developed Kolhapur District.

ix. Three Jewelry Shops are located only in developed Kolhapur Block. Similarly, power-loom units (one) is also located in Kolhapur block only. One printing press is working in Kolhapur block.

x. Similarly, there are 3 milk processing units operating in backward Beed block only. We may conclude from the above data, that, there are a total no. of 245 manufacturing units started by the rural women entrepreneurs in the 4 blocks under study. Of theses 51% (124 units) are located in under-developed blocks and 49%  are located in developed blocks.

iv. Tertiary or Services Sector: There are a total no. of 231 rural women entrepreneurs engaged in various types of Tertiary Sector economic activities in both under-developed and developed blocks of this study. Of
these, 113 units (or 48.9%) are located in the under-developed blocks of Beed (30 units) and Ratnagiri (83 units); while, 188 units (51.1%) are located in the developed blocks of Nagpur (57 units) and Kolhapur (61 units). There are a total no. of 9major economic services undertaken by these women entrepreneurs, viz; Grocery Shops, Tea Stall, Vegetable / Fruit / Fish / Egg Stalls, Bangle Shops, General Stores, Beauty Parlors, Fabrication, S.T.D booths, and other economic activities, like Pan Shops, Loundry, Shoe Shops, Medical Store, etc.

i. Grocery Shop: This appears to be the major service sector activity undertaken by the women entrepreneurs of this study, as 52 women out 500 (or 10.4%) have taken this business. Out of these 52, 24 (or 46%) units are located in under-developed blocks while the remaining 28 units (54%) are located in developed blocks.

ii.
Vegetable / Fruit Stalls: This is the second major economic service undertaken by the sample women entrepreneurs. There are a total no. of 40 vegetable / fruits stalls; of which 23 stalls (57.5%) are located in under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri, while 17 stalls (42.5%) are located in developed blocks of Nagpur & Kolhapur. They also sold fish and eggs.

iii. Tea Stalls: Tea Stalls are also popular among women entrepreneurs, as they have started a total no. of 30 Tea stalls; of which 16 units (53%) are located in Ratnagiri block, but here is not a single tea stall in Beed block. The remaining 14 tea stalls have been started in developed blocks (47%).

iv. Bangle Shops: Bangle shops, is yet another important service activity under taken by the women entrepreneurs. There are a total no. of 32 bangle shops, of which 20 units (or 62.5%) are located in under-developed blocks while the remaining 12 units (or 37.5%) are located in developed blocks.

v. Cloth Shops: Cloth shops have been started by a total no. of 18 women entrepreneurs; of which 5 shops (28%) are located under- developed blocks and 13 shops (72%) in developed blocks.

vi. General Stores: General Stores have been started by a total no. of 17 women entrepreneurs, meeting various day-to-day needs of the rural community. Of these, 7 stores (41%) are located in under- developed blocks and 10 stores (59%) in developed blocks.

vii. Beauty Parlors: It appear that beauty parlors are becoming popular among rural women folk as well. There are 13 beauty parlors started by them, of which 2 are in under-developed and remaining 11 in developed blocks.

viii. Fabrication: Fabrication works have been undertaken by 3 Women Entrepreneurs and all of them have been located in backward Ratnagiri Block.

ix. S.T.D Booths: S.T.D Booth is a new economic service started by 5 women entrepreneurs, of which 3 booths are located in under- developed blocks and 2 booths in developed block.

x. Other Service Activities: There are a total no. of 21 other service activities, which include, Pan Shops, Medical Stores, Laundries, Decoration, Tractor Service etc. Of these 21, 10 units are located in under-
developed while the remaining 11 units are located in developed block. From the above discussion, we may conclude that, sample women entrepreneurs in both, under-developed as well as developed blocks have undertaken various service activities, based on the needs of the Rural Community.

13. Investments, Income and the Rate of Return:  income and the rate of return on such investments,
of only functioning units, undertaken by the rural women entrepreneurs of the study. We have given these data for under- developed and developed blocks separately, for comparison.


Primary Sector:

There were a total no. of 20 operating units, of which 15 were operating in under-developed blocks and 5 units in developed blocks. Dairy, Bullock Cart and Goat Rearing were the economic activities under this sector. The per unit average income from these three type of activities were observed to be as fallows: -

i. In dairy units, the average in under-developed blocks was Rs. 11000/-, while it was higher at Rs. 30250/- in developed block. Similarly, the rate of return was 30.9% in the former and 71.2% in the latter case.
Bullock cart was operated only in under-developed block of Beed; it earned are income of Rs. 7000/- per annum and a rate of return of 35%
.
ii. Goat rearing earned an average income of Rs. 3333/- in under- developed blocks, while it earned Rs. 3000/- in developed blocks. The rate of return was 26.3% in former and 27.3% in the
latter. Although, the rates of return in these activities are better, even than the average income earned by them is not adequate to feed their families.


Secondary Sector:

This is the major sector of the non-farm activities. There were a total no. of 243 operating units; of these 122 were operating in under-developed blocks while 121 units were operating in developed blocks. The Capital investment per unit is much higher in this sector than what is required in the Primary Sector. For example minimum capital per unit was observed to be in case of Rope- wearing (Rs. 2000/-) and maximum in case of carpentry (Rs. 2 lakhs). There were a total no. of 12 economic activities undertaken in this sector. We shall examine the level of incomes and rates of return, relating to a few major activities.

i. Tailoring / Piecofalls: This appears to be a major economic activity undertaken by women entrepreneurs of the study. A total no. of 157 units were operating, of which 71 units were in under-developed blocks and 86 units in developed blocks. The average capital employed per unit in under-developed blocks was Rs. 9268/-;
and per unit income was Rs. 13535/-, while the rate of return was 146%. In developed blocks, the per unit capital, income and rate of return were, Rs. 7314/-, Rs. 16070/- and 219.7 respectively. Therefore, tailoring activity appears to be quite satisfactory and suitable for women entrepreneurs.

ii. Chilli Grinding / Flour Mills: This is the second major non-farm activity, which was operated by 43 women entrepreneurs; of which 24 units were located in under-developed blocks and 19 units were operated
in developed blocks. The average capital employed per units in chilli grinding in under-developed blocks was Rs. 19250/-; while it earned an annual income of Rs. 13833/-, and a rate of return of 79.9%. In developed blocks, the capital, income and rate of return was Rs. 30895/-, Rs. 20895/- and 67.6% respectively.

iii. Brom-making units were 13, of which 12 were located in under- developed block and only one in developed block. The per unit capital required was only Rs. 2000/- in under-developed blocks and Rs. 11000/- in developed blocks. It is a labour intensive economic activity. Per unit income in under-developed blocks was Rs. 3000/- indicating a rate of return of 150%. In developed block however the income per unit was much higher at Rs. 11000/- and a rate of return of 136.4%.

iv. There were a total no. of 12 food processing units, of which 7 units were located in under-developed blocks and 5 units in developed blocks. Per unit capital employed in food processing unit in under-developed blocks was Rs. 88286/-; it earned an annual income of Rs. 24857/- and a rate of return of 28.2%.
Similarly, in developed blocks, the per unit capital, income and rate of return were, Rs. 24200/- Rs. 11600/- and 47.9% respectively. Other Non-farm Activities: - There were a few other non-farm activities undertaken by the women entrepreneurs, both in under-developed and developed blocks. The per unit or average rates of return on these investments made are as follows: -

i. Pottery, 111% in under-developed blocks only. The level of income is low at Rs. 10,000/- p.a.
ii. Black smithy, rate of return 100%, but the level of income is low at Rs. 8500 p.a. (only in under-developed block.)
iii. Carpentry, required larg capital of Rs. 2 lakhs per unit. But is earned high level of income of Rs. 8000/-, p.a. The rate of return was 40%. (only in under-developed block.)
iv. Jewelry shop was located only in developed block with an investment of Rs. 187333/-; it earned an income of Rs. 48667/- indicating a rate of return of 26%.
v. Milk processing units (3) were operated only in under-developed blocks, with an average capital investment of Rs. 47333/-. It arned an average income of Rs. 19000/- per unit, indicating a
rate of return of 40.1%.


Tertiary or Services Sector:

There were a total no. of 231 Service Sector units operating in both under-developed and developed blocks
together. Of these 133 units were functional in under-developed blocks and 118 units in developed blocks. These units included 9 type of major Service unit like, grocery shops, vegetable stalls, tea stalls, bangle shops, general stores etc.

i. Grocery shops: There were a total no. of 52 grocery shops; of which 24 shops were located in under-developed blocks and 28 shops in developed blocks. The average per unit investment in grocery shop in under-developed blocks was Rs. 41125/-; it earned an annual income of Rs. 34042/- showing a rate of return of 82.8%, which was quite high. In developed blocks, however, per unit investment in grocery shop was Rs. 63393/-, it earned Rs. 30464/- per year, indicating a rate of return of 48%.

ii. Tea Stall: There were a total no. of 30 tea stalls started by women entrepreneurs; of these 16 stalls were located in under- developed blocks and 14 stalls in developed blocks. The per unit capital cost of tea stalls was Rs. 53312/- in under-developed blocks; it earned an annual income of Rs. 40500/- per unit, showing a rate of return of 76%. In developed blocks, the average per unit capital cost was Rs. 36929/-; it earned an annual income of Rs. 31500/-, indicating a rate of return of 82.3%.

iii. vegetable / Fruit Shops: There were a total no. of 40 Vegetable stalls operated by women entrepreneurs; of these 23 shops were operating in under-developed and 17 shops in developed blocks. The average investment per unit of vegetable shops in under-developed blocks was Rs. 16696/-; it warned per shop income of Rs. 22956/-. Per annum, indicating a rate of return of 137.5%.
In developed blocks, investment per shop was Rs. 19176/-; which earned an annual income of Rs. 23588/-,
showing a rate of return of 123%.

iv. Bangle Shops: This is yet another service sector activity under taken by a total no. of 32 women entrepreneurs of this study. Of these, 20 units were located in under-developed block and 12 units in
developed block. Per unit investment in bangle shop in under-developed blocks was Rs. 19050/-; it earned an annual income of Rs. 10650/-, indicating a rate of return of 55.9%. Similarly, in developed blocks, per unit investment in bangle shop was Rs. 23917/-; it earned per units annual income of Rs. 14500/-; showing a rate of return of 60.6%.

v. Cloth Shops: Another popular service sector activity was starting cloth shops by sample women entrepreneurs of this study. These were 5 cloth shops in under-developed blocks and 13 shops in developed blocks. The per unit investment in the former was Rs. 41600/-, and if earned income of Rs. 12000/- p.a., showing a rate of return of 28.8%. In developed blocks, the units cost of investment was Rs. 98308/- while its annual income was Rs. 77923/-, indicates a rate of return of 79.3%.

vi. General Shop: There a total no. of 17 functioning general stores; of which 7 general stores were operating in under-developed blocks and 10 general stores in developed blocks. The per unit capital investment in general stores, in under-developed blocks was found to be Rs. 57714/-; while it earned an annual income of
Rs. 55000/-, indicating a rate of return of 95.3%. In developed blocks, the per unit capital investment was Rs. 41900/-; and it earned an annual income of Rs. 29800/- indicating a rate of return of 71.1%.

vii. Beauty Parlours: There were two beauty parlors in under-developed blocks and 11 in developed blocks or a total of 13 beauty parlors run by the sample women entrepreneurs. The average per unit capital investment in beauty parlors in under-developed blocks was Rs. 17500/-. It earned an annual income of Rs. 10,000/-; indicating a rate of return of 57.1%. In developed blocks capital investment per units was
Rs. 27909/-, and annual income generated was Rs. 25000/-, indicating a rate of return of 85.6%.

viii. Fabrication: There were a total no. of 3 fabrication units operating only in under-developed
blocks. The per unit investment in fabrication was Rs. 87333/-. It earned an annual income of Rs. 87333/-, showing a rate of return of 100%.

ix. S.T.D. Booths: There were a total no. of 5 S.T.D. booths started by women entrepreneurs; of which 3 booth were functioning in under-developed blocks and 2 booths in developed blocks. The per unit investment each booth was Rs. 27667/-, in under- developed blocks and it earned an annual income of Rs. 24333/-, indicating a rate of return of 88%. In developed blocks the per unit investment in S.T.D. booth was Rs. 46500/-; it earned an annual income of Rs. 25500/-; indicating a rate of return of 54.8%.

x. Other Activities: The sample women entrepreneurs had also undertaken various other service activities like, pan shops, laundry services, decoration, tractor services etc. The total no. of such services, was, 21. Of these 10 Services ere operating in under-developed blocks and 11 services in developed blocks. The average
investment in these services in under-developed blocks was Rs. 15700/-; and it earned an income of Rs. 11100/-, indicating a rate of return of 70.7%. In developed blocks, the per unit investment was found to be Rs. 69091/-; it earned an average income of Rs. 19091/-, indicating a rate of return of 27.6%.


Conclusion: It may be concluded from the above discussion that, the sample rural women entrepreneurs in both, developed as well as under-developed blocks are successfully operating their economic activities in all the three sectors (i.e. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary) of the district economices. The annual incomes earned by them and the rates of return on their investments are quite satisfactory. Social Security Covered by the Sample Women Entrepreneurs: In This Section, we are discussing the important issue of social security covered by the sample rural women entrepreneurs of this study. Table No.. Shows information about the social security enjoyed by the sample entrepreneurs. These social security measures covered are,

(i) Insurance of 170 establishment / enterprises against the risk of fire, theft, etc. (ii) Insurance against accidents, death, illness, (iii) Social Security benefits with respect to (a) Maternity benefits, (b) Family benefits.

I. Insurance against Risk of Fire / Theft: This is the most important part of the insurance coverage against the risk of fire, theft, in the business enterprises or establishment / building. But, surprisingly, only 28 entrepreneurs (10.9%) in under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri together had insured their establishments against the risk of fire and theft. On the other hand, 21 Women Entrepreneurs (or 8.6%) in the developed blocks had insured their enterprises against the risk of fire and theft.

II. Insurance Against Accidents, Illness & Death: Out of a total number of 256 rural women entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks, 39 entrepreneurs (or 15.2%) had insured against the risk of accidents, illness and death. In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, out of a total number of 244 women entrepreneurs, 52 entrepreneurs (or 21.3%) had insured against the risk of accidents, illness and
death.

III. Social Security Benefits: It is surprising to note that social security benefits with respect to maternity benefits are enjoyed by 7 women entrepreneurs (2.7%) in only under-developed blocks; while family benefits are also enjoyed by 7 entrepreneurs (or 2.7%) in under-developed block only (Beed only). Social security benefits of these nature were completely absent in developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur. From this analysis, we may conclude that, the coverage of social security benefits among the sample women entrepreneurs in both under-developed and developed blocks is very poor. The concerned authorities need to disseminate information relating to various social security benefits available to these women entrepreneurs.
In this regard, we shall now discuss the proposed social security system drafted by the National Commission, for Enterprises in Unorganized Sector (NCEUS), in 2005.

Impact of Transformation on the average annual incomes of the sample rural women entrepreneurs:

In this section, we shall discuss the impact of the transformation on the annual incomes of the rural women
entrepreneurs operating their enterprises in under-developed and developed blocks of this study. Table No…. shows, data relating to the average annual incomes of the rural women entrepreneurs, for the decade, that is, 1994-95 and 2005-06; both for under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri together; and for developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur blocks together.

i. The impact of transformation on the levels of annual average incomes of rural entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagir, shows that, during the year 1994-95, the average annual income of these 256 rural enterprises was found to be Rs. 12625/-. But, after a decade, that is, in the year 2005- 06, their average annual income increased to Rs. 24870/-. The net increase in annual income, per enterprises was observed to be (Rs. 24870 - Rs. 12645) = Rs. 12245/-, which may be considered quite substantial. The percentage change of average income, per enterprises over the decade was found to be +97%.

ii.  the impact of transformation on average annual incomes of the rural women entrepreneurs
operating in developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, during the same decade, that is, 1994-95 and 2005-06. Their total number was 244. The average annual income of this class of rural women entrepreneurs, in the year 1994-95, was found to be Rs. 12946/-. But, in 2005-06, their average annual income increased to Rs. 36615/-. This indicates a rise of net income of (Rs. 36615 – Rs. 12946) = 23669/-, over the decade. The percentage change over the decade was quite high at +183%, during the reference period. From the above analysis we may draw the following conclusions:

a. During, the period of transformation, that is, 1994-95 and 2005-06, the impact on levels of incomes of the sample rural women entrepreneurs in both, under-developed as well as in developed blocks has been quite good and satisfactory.

b. Relatively speaking, the impact on level of income of entrepreneurs in developed blocks in much higher at +183%, when compared to the changes in levels of incomes of the rural entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks, which was +97%, during the same period.

Crossing the Poverty Line: In the section, an attempt is made to estimate the proportion of rural women entrepreneurs, who could cross the poverty line of an annual income of Rs. 24000/-, during the decade. This may be considered as very important impact of the transformation on their levels of incomes. Table no. 4.34 shows data relating to such impact on the levels of incomes, of the sample women entrepreneurs both in under-developed blocks as well as developed blocks under study. The results are as follows: -

i. Under-Developed Blocks: In under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri together, the total number of rural women entrepreneurs was 256. In 1994-95, the total number of BPL entrepreneurs, was 161 (or 62.9%) of the total; while the proportion of APL entrepreneurs was (37.1%) or 95 entrepreneurs indicating a very high proportion of BPL entrepreneurs. But, after a decade in 2005-06, the number of BPL entrepreneurs declined to 81 (or 31.6%); while the proportion of APL entrepreneurs increased to 68.4% (or 175 families). Hence, the number of women entrepreneurs crossing the poverty line of Rs. 24000/- was observed to be 80, or 31.3% of the total entrepreneurs (i.e 256).

This should be considered as an important impact of transformation.

ii. Developed Blocks: In developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur together, the total number of sample rural women entrepreneurs was 244. In 1994-95, the total number of BPL entrepreneurs in these blocks was 127 (or 52%) of the total entrepreneurs. The remaining entrepreneurs belonged to the category of Above Poverty Line (APL) category (or 48.0%). After a decade in 2005-06, the number of entrepreneurs in BPL
category drastically declined to 35 (or 14.3% of the total); while the number of APL entrepreneurs increased to 209 (or 85.7% of total). Hence, from these data, the following important conclusion may be drawn: -

a. During, the decade of transformation, the proportion of rural women entrepreneurs families, crossing the poverty line in under-developed blocks, was observed to be 31.3% of the total; or in other words, 80 entrepreneurs, out of the total of 256, could cross the poverty line of Rs. 24000/- p.a.

b. During, the same period, the proportion of rural women entrepreneurs in developed blocks of Nagpur and Kolhapur, crossing the poverty line was found to be 37.7%; or in other words, out of a total number of 244 women entrepreneurs, 92 entrepreneurs or 37.7% could cross the poverty line of Rs. 24000/- p.a.

c. The proportion of women entrepreneurs crossing the poverty line in developed blocks (Nagpur & Kolhapur) was much higher at 37.7%, when compared to the entrepreneurs crossing the poverty line under developed blocks (Beed & Ratnagiri), which 31.3%.

i. Under –developed Districts. Interpretation (1) Standard deviation : the value of Standard deviation with reference to average incomes of the rural women entrepreneurs in under developed districts (Beed & Ratnagiri) before the transformation period was found to be Rs. 25032 ; while the coefficient of variation (C.V.) during the same year was observed to be 77.56%, which indicates a high level of instability within the group. But after a decade of transformation, the value of standard deviation has declined considerably level of inequality from the average income. Similarly, the value of coefficient of variation has also declined from 77.56% to 48.99% during the decade which shows movement towards stability of the income level of the rural women entrepreneurs.

ii. Developed Districts : The Value of standard deviation of the level of income of the rural women entrepreneurs in developed districts of Nagpur and kolhapur was found to be Rs. 27984, before the period of transformation. After the decade of transformation the value of standard deviation has declined to Rs. 17988, indicating to yedaced level of deviation from the average income. Similarly, during the same period the value of coefficient of variation (C.V.), which was 61.02% beore the transformation, indicating to movement towards stability of the level of income.

iii. The coefficient of variation (C.V.) of the incomes in developed areas, after the transformation (2005-06) was observed to be much steeper (40.68%), then what was found in income-group, after transformation i.e. 48.49%. This indicates that the income levels in developed areas are more stable and show less deviations from the average incomes, than what was observed in under developed areas.

Investment made by Sample Women Entrepreneurs: In this section, we shall discuss the investment pattern
adopted by the sample entrepreneurs in both under-developed as well as developed blocks of this study. These investments are made by them out of their savings.

We have already stated that, there are 256 sample rural women entrepreneurs in the under-developed blocks of Beed and Ratnagiri; while in the developed blocks, the number is 244. In under-developed blocks, 30%
of the women entrepreneurs have spent on an average Rs. 11000/-, on construction or repairs to their old houses. In developed blocks, however, 20% of the total entrepreneurs, have spent, on an average Rs. 21000/- on repairs / construction.

b. Purchase of Domestic Goods: This is the second major item of expenditure as 17% of the sample women entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks have spent on an average Rs. 5000/-, on the purchase of domestic goods. In developed blocks 20% of them have spent, on an average, Rs. 6000/- on purchase of domestic items.

c. Investment in Existing Business: With a view to expand their existing business, 8% of the rural women entrepreneurs in under-developed blocks, have invested, on an average Rs. 53000/-, in their own business. In
developed blocks, 7% of the total entrepreneurs have invested, on an average Rs. 96000/- to expand their existing business.

d. Improvement to Agriculture lands: 5% of the total rural women entrepreneurs in under-
developed blocks have also invested, on an average, Rs.28000/-, to improve their agriculture lands to raise their productivity. However, in developed blocks only one percent sample
entrepreneurs, could spent, on an average Rs. 35000/-, for improvement to agricultural lands.

e. Purchase of Residential Plots: 2% of the total entrepreneurs under-developed blocks had invested, on an average, Rs. 98000/- for purchase of residential plots. In developed blocks 4% of them had invested, on an average Rs. 69000/- for this purpose.

f. Purchase of New Agriculture lands: 2% of the total rural entrepreneurs in under-developed
blocks had purchased new agriculture lands, by spending, on an average Rs. 62000/-. In developed blocks, no such investment has taken place.

From, the above analysis, we may conclude that, the sample rural women entrepreneurs in both under-developed, as well as in developed blocks, have invested their surplus income or saving, with two major objectives: -

i. To improve the standard of living by investing in purchase of domestic goods, improvement in housing conditions.
ii. To raise their annual income, they have also invested in various
productive activities.

OPINION OF NGO'S AND EMPLOYERS ENGAGED IN RURAL AREAS

During survey under Study on "Transformation in the Rural Economy", during last one decade and its Impact, we have made an attempt to study the impact of transformation on Rural Women Working in Un-organized Sector. We have covered 100 NGO’s and Employers who were engaged in empowering women in Rural Areas. The views expressed by them relating to the impact on rural women are as follows : -

Previously no women was forth coming for any kind of labour work or undertaking any economic activity to support the family. Now the scene has changed to some extent as with the support of NGO’s and other agencies, they are coming forward to engage themselves, in various economic activities. The quality of leadership is also growing to some extent and improvement of their skill development is also encouraging. Their capacity of judgement and self-confidence has also been note worthy.

Particularly in rural areas SGSY Groups were forth coming in large numbers to establish economic activity for
generating income through the advances from SHG Groups. These SHG Groups mostly cover the activities under Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors. Under Primary Sector, Dairy Development, Goat rearing, Bullock & Bullock cart, Mushroom, Vermi Compost activities were preferred. In the case of Secondary Sector, Broom making, Candle manufacturing, Masala Products and Fruit Processing units were mostly observed. Tertiary Sector was mainly in Tailoring, Beauty Parlor, STD/PCO, Grocery Shops, Cloth Store, Electric Shop etc.

Generally, it was noticed by the NGOs that less stress is given to Training as well as to IEC Programme, which presently needs more attention under globalization. Vulnerable sections of society, particularly women need not be exposed to liberalization at the initial slag. Capabilities of a large section of women need
to be enhanced. Which can be done if proper educational methods are adopted. During formation of SHG at the stage of revolving fund, the role of Banks was not encouraging. Lastly, comparatively women in the earlier decade were feeling shy to come forward and fall in line with the Social stream. But, presently due to IEC programme on various governmental projects, the women category has gained confidence and become bold enough to come forward for their rights and fight for their well-being and up-grading the education of their children, Awareness on health and sanitation problems was also noticed.

A limited impact on the Rural Artisans business due to Globalization was also observed. A sense of competitiveness in all types of activities was observed, but still women, if given, financial support and inputs, can improve their performance. Women NGO's working in rural areas expressed the opinion that the basic amenities were not provided to women workers on work-sites, resulting hampering of their work to
some extent. Awareness among, the rural women folk, regarding self-confidence, motivation to do some economic activity to support their family income is noteworthy. They have also understood the importance of education of their children for the future progress of their families, and a status in the society.